Animal Farm, Snowball Essay

He led a revolution, became a scapegoat, and was exiled from his home lane. This person was Leon Trotsky, a Russian Marxist revolutionary. In the novel Animal Farm, Trotsky came out through a pig named Snowball. Throughout the novel, Trotsky is brought up more and more through snowball. Leon Trotsky is represented through Snowball by the many life events they had in common. Snowball was chased away from the farm and became an exile by Napoleons trained dogs. In Trotsky’s life, he too became an exile from his home. He sent away and banned from returning. In addition, Napoleon claimed that all the ideas that had come from Snowball were actually all his own creations. â€Å"One of them all but closed his jaws on Snowballs tail, but Snowball whisked it free just in time. Then he put on an extra spurt†¦ slipped through a hole†¦ and was seen no more†(68). This is a quote from the scene where Snowball becomes banned from the farm. After Snowball takes charge over the farm for some time, his comrade, Napoleon comes to despise him. Snowball and Napoleon never agree on anything. Napoleon did not want the animals to side with Snowball, he always argued against Snowballs ideas and was never friendly towards him. What also went on was Napoleon, showing his hatred for Snowball, examined the layouts Snowball had made for the windmill and urinated over the plans. Napoleon showed his disgust by urinating on something that was important to Snowball. â€Å"†¦looked closely at every detail of the plans†¦ then suddenly he [Napoleon] lifted his leg, urinated over the plans, and walked away†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (65). Obviously the action that Napoleon just committed shows hatred for Snowball. After Snowball was gone from the farm, he became a scapegoat for Napoleon. It was suddenly Snowballs fault that the windmill had collapsed. Napoleon needed a reason for it to have fallen, and who better to blame than Snowball, that way the animals would want revenge by building a stronger one; exactly what Napoleon wanted. In addition, it was announced that Snowball had been sneaking onto the farm to steal corn, break eggs and what not. Whatever bad thing that occurred was automatically put on Snowball by Napoleon. â€Å"Whenever anything went wrong it became usual to attribute it to Snowball†(88). With hardly ever any proof, Snowball was always the scapegoat. In conclusion, it is obvious how Snowball went through the events of Leon Trotsky’s life. From having his ideas stolen to becoming a scapegoat, he led the life of a famous revolutionary leader, though it wasn’t a very good life, he made a big impact on all of his comrades and will never be forgotten.

Love and Patriotism Essay

Patriotism is a frame of mind in which one loves one’s country and is proud of it. It is a vigorous feeling of love, loyalty and support for one’s country especially in defense against its enemies. It means that one should give more value and importance to one’s country than to one’s own self. It makes one bound for certain responsibilities, and these responsibilities are ideological commitment and dedication to the defense and prosperity of one’s country. â€Å"Only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country. (Nathan Hale) Man is a social animal. It is hard for him to breathe in isolation. Contact with his fellow beings is inevitable for mutual growth and economic development. Patriotism creates unity among the people for a noble cause and trains them to tolerate one and other and sacrifice for the country. â€Å"Soldiers die not in hatred but in love.† (Anonymous) Patriotism is a virtue that converts a mob into nation. Nations rise and prosper if their individuals are united by a cord of love, sympathy and sincerity. People learn to honor the freedom and independence of their country. They learn that they can prosper and progress if they have a deep natural relation with their country. Birds fly towards their nests, children rush to take refuge in the lap of their mothers and human beings move towards their homes for peace and shelter, and so is our country that gives us protection and peace. It is a sort of heaven for us. We should try our best to make it beautiful, secure, strong and peaceful. Our existence definitely depends on the existence and survival of our dear homeland. We can do so if we have an ultimate faith in our country. We must not undermine our relationship and association which we have with our homeland by birth. â€Å"Waste no more time arguing about what a good man should be. Be one.† (Mareus) Disciplined armed forces, hardworking and skillful craftsmen, diligent and committed women, and ambitious students have only one aim and that is to serve their country. They believe that their personal achievement will benefit not only themselves but also their country. They want to raise the flag of their country because they have a strong sense of patriotism. Love works wonders. Miracles are not beyond us if we are fired with the passion of patriotism. Patriotism fills us with a magnetic force which overcomes all our petty differences of languages and creeds.

Authoritative Parenting Model Essay

Establishing discipline through authoritative parenting is an effective style because it displays secure emotional development, allows a higher quality of supportive peer relationships and enhances problem-solving skills for the child. Research has shown that authoritative parenting is the most effective style of parenting. Authoritative parenting is the one style that promotes equal involvement between the parent and child. (Cherry, 2013a). The parent displays fair discipline, warmth and nurturing, effective communication with the child and sets certain expectations on behavior and maturity. This parenting style promotes a â€Å"democratic† model in which parents are  responsive to the child’s needs, thoughts and concerns. These parents will listen to questions the child may have on expectations set. Simply put by these parents are direct but not over bearing. (Cherry, 2013b). They reason instead of just punishing the child. Parents of this model want their children to be self-assured, socially approachable and cooperative. This furthermore, clearly defines that the authoritative style allows open communication between parent and child, love, guidance, nurturing, explanation of discipline and balance for the child. The authoritative parenting style is about setting limits, reasoning with kids, and being responsive to their emotional needs. (Dewar, 2013). These types of parents offer children a great deal of emotional support. While setting high standards for a child, parents who practice the authoritative style are responsive to the needs of children, demand children to show respect as well as provide a nurturing environment. In setting limits, children will often comply with respect to their parents and act responsibly. When children misbehave, the authoritative parent provides discipline as well and pointing out and discussing the misbehavior. The parent further provides reasoning to the act. In addition, parents allow for verbal responses and communication  from the child that promotes a sense of balance. As Dewar further states, there is evidence that this style helps kids become more empathic, helpful, conscientious, and kind to others. Dewar also suggests, authoritative parents are both highly responsive and very demanding. Overall, this is one of the best ways to define the authoritative parenting style. Evidenced  research provides several conclusions that children raised by authoritative parents are more likely to become independent, socially accepted by peers, academically productive, and well mannered. (Dewar, 2013). Children often become more supportive, reliable, and thoughtful to family and peers. Authoritative parents promote secure attachments and allow children to communicate their concerns and feelings. In doing so, children are less likely to internalize problems. Talking with a child will allow them to verbalize both good and bad, learning from these better choices and avoiding future mistakes. In the end, children will become better with problem solving skills and positive emotional well-being. Authoritative parenting offers secure emotional development of a child. These parents exhibit respectable emotional understanding and control, encourage children to manage their own emotions and learn to understand others as well. (Cherry, 2013b). The authoritative parenting style focuses on parents listening to what their children have to say, place reasonable limits that have set consequences for certain behaviors and encourage an independent child. Parents are warm and welcoming to discuss anything with the child but do not do this in a robust manner. This parent is consistent with discipline but expects the child take responsibility for their actions. The parents do not judge or place immediate blame, they listen to what the child has to say. In return, these children tend to be capable of making appropriate decisions, have a sense of pride and happiness with themself and achieve goals set for them effectively. In other words, the authoritative parent encourages a child to set expectations of their own to succeed,  work through problems, develop their own skill sets and accomplish a strong sense of confidence. Diane Baumrind’s research shows that these children display a happier disposition, have effective control of their emotions, exhibit s social interaction and are self-starters in learning new things. (Cherry, 2013a). Multiple studies have been done that prove authoritative parents score high on measures of warmth and responsiveness and high on measures of control and maturity demands (Spera, 2005). This is likely due to the parent’s warm and responsive manner in which the child is approached by the parent. The parents due demand a high level of maturity from the child, but do so with balance, affection, and bidirectional communication to nurture relationships. The parent gives explanation of why a child should act a certain way in social or serious situation. Parents also help the child to prioritize what is important to succeed socially and academically. This is referred to as the demandingness/responsive model. (Spera, 2005). Demandingness refers to the demands parents make on their children to become unified with family and united in society with others. Parents hold certain levels of demand for their children, but provide direction, and discipline when appropriate. Responsiveness refers to parental actions that purposefully encourage individuality, self-confidence and contention of the child. With parental responsiveness, parents are receptive and understanding of the child’s needs. Parenting in this manner and with warmth and understanding, this can make a child’s temperament more calm, happy, adaptable, regulate sleeping and eating habits, set a positive mood and encourage interest in new experiences. Research has found that the best-adjusted children have parents with an authoritative style (Gurian, 2011). These parents are able to balance with definitions, place high demands with emotional responsiveness and maintain respect for their child’s independence. Parents need to remember though; children also have their own style and temperament. They do  react differently in given situations and parents must recognize those differences, especially in families with many siblings. Differences in these types of children are the easy going, calm, happy child who possess healthy habits, is generally in a good mood at all time and is interested in many different activities. In contrast, difficult child may be fussy, negative, and emotionally weak and get upset easily. Authoritative parents must understand the given situation and find a good â€Å"fit† to meet the child’s demands. Being consistent is key as well. Setting limits on the child, providing ongoing encouragement, recognizing accomplishments, discussing solutions to problems and consistent communication is a must. Constructive conversation and encouragement with balance develop a strong relationship. Parents need to gain and maintain respect from their children to be able to teach them how to develop strong social relationships. Parents are the influential to child as they set limits and rules with respect to each individual in the family. A warm parent is full encouragement, bi directional communication, and love. (Harkey, 2012). The authoritative style is obviously the one that parents should strive for when parenting. When this type of parenting is accomplished a child will be happy, content and successful. Children will strive for balance and selfconfidence to develop strong peer relationships. Authoritative parents practice demandingness and response. They balance control and empathy that results in a thriving relationship with the child. These parents also do not put more on a child then they feel the child can handle. Again, they listen to the child’s needs and help them to make better decisions. Authoritative parent practices  increase the importance of peer relationships for adolescents. This parenting style encourages a variety of positive outcomes for adolescents with quality, supportive friendships. (Beck, 2011). Peer friendships are important to all children especially in the adolescent years. Support from friends helps to develop a higher self-esteem  during this time and makes teens feel important. The authoritative parenting style promotes this as parents discuss school events, peer relationships and emotions with the child. Studies show that strong peer relationships are related to better social skills and develop leadership qualities in teens. (Beck, 2011). Parents encourage teens to become involved in these types of relationships. Parents encourage externalized communication, involvement in teen activities, questions about their peer relationships and strong communications. At the same time, parents demand certain behaviors and will not tolerate inappropriate teen behaviors. Parents must remember not to wait to form these bonds with children in the adolescent years; these bonds must being in early childhood and continued throughout the early adulthood years. Parents must also recognize that teens may begin to reference peers for advice and problem solving skills. Parent involvement without being over bearing is essential to maintain a balanced relationship with the child. Authoritative parenting is effective for positive outcomes of the child in problem solving skills as well as success with peer relationships (Spera, 2005). Spera reviews findings that speak to research of children from authoritative parenting styles and that are associated with positive school  outcomes. In his review of such research he suggests that authoritative parents provide many idea dynamics that lead to high academic performance. Authoritative parents provide a high level of emotional security. This allows the child a sense of comfort and helps them to succeed in their school and peer relationships. Spera also defines that authoritative parents provide their children with explanations for their actions. Explanations provide children with a sense of interpretation and mindfulness of their parents’ values, morals, and goals. These are the building blocks to success in academic and social performance. Authoritative parents participate with the child in bidirectional communication. This style furthermore promotes better skills in interpersonal relations, sets a higher level of confidence and more popular children. These  interpersonal skills are a direct reflection of how a child will succeed in school, both socially and academically. Authoritative parents take a different, more moderate approach that emphasizes setting high standards, being nurturing and responsive, and showing respect for children as independent, rational beings. The authoritative parent expects maturity and cooperation, and offers children a lot of emotional support. Quality parenting is ongoing and offers warm and secure bonds between the parent and child. Children raised in this environment are less likely to internalize their feelings as authoritative parents encourage the child to talk about their thoughts and feelings. Also when a child makes a mistake, the parents must approach the situation in a caring manner vs. a blaming tone. This can  provide openness and solutions to problem solving and in turn children will become more effective learners from this process. Studies prove that encouraging independence in children reflect better problem solving skills and healthy emotional beings. (Dewar, 2010). This can provide the appropriate means for a child to become more helpful to others, caring and giving. In doing so, children will be viewed by peers as being kind, approachable and sometimes popular. The best-adjusted child, particularly in terms of social competence, has parents who utilize the authoritative, moderate parenting style. (Gurian, 2011). Gurian examines and compares the parenting styles researched for many years by Diane Baumrind that speaks to three different styles. These styles are authoritative, authoritarian and permissive parenting. Authoritative parenting, provides a balanced approach, demands expectations of appropriate behaviors, allow children to think through decisions and develop a sense of autonomy. Authoritarian patenting on the other hand, emphasizes strict discipline and severe punishment. Also, there is little affection shown. Permissive parenting, displays passionate warmth but this parent is hesitant to enforce rules. Gurian further explains that children from authoritative  families tend to be emotionally sound, well behaved and competent in academic performance. This makes them resourceful, and socially adept in all aspects of life. In reference to children from authoritarian families, they are fairly well behaved but lack social skills. Also these children tend to  suffer from anxiety, unhappiness, and lack of self-confidence. Children from permissive families may hold a high self esteem but tend to get involved in problem behaviors such as drug or alcohol abuse and are poor performers in academics. Findings show that among all the components of personality, there is a direct and significant relationship between openness personality trait and authoritative parenting style. (Mohammad, Nasirudin, Samadzadeh and Amini, 2012). It aims to explore the difference in parenting styles and personality dimensions. This leads children to broaden their scope of curiosity and wisdom, which helps them with problem solving skills. The authors of this abstract (Mohammad, Nasirudin, Samadzadeh and Amini, 2012) clearly research and study over 272 students from a national university. They used random sampling and a questionnaire to gather the information to be reviewed from these students as the authoritative parenting style is one compared to the others that improves secure being, focus, knowledge, and develops problem solving. Also, in this study it reflects that the authoritative parenting style is the one compared to the others that improves secure being within the child, focus, and knowledge and develops problem-solving skills. Results of this study also showed that parent’s educational manners and styles are effective on the development of children’s personality behaviors. Parents play an important role in meeting a child’s needs. It is imperative that a parent provides a healthy relationship with child using the authoritative style of open communication, warmth and love. Self-confidence for child throughout life is significant in decision-making. Children with authoritative education style have higher social-emotional growth and better academic  achievement. Parents display social support, mutual relationships, approachability, responsiveness and satisfaction towards children with an authoritative parenting style. This in turn results in the maturity of these mechanisms within children. Family is definitely the main support of a child’s personality traits and growth. Parenting styles are patterns for children’s enhancement that is formed by the consistent communication of parent/child and how they response to children’s behavior. Authoritative parents demand maturity and accountability from the child, but approach them in a kind way with explanation at all times. Various studies discussed by (Mohammad, Nasirudin, Samadzadeh and Amini, 2012) speak to the committed relationship and authoritative parenting style that has a direct reflection on academic achievement in children. It also has a positive impact on the well-being and mental health of the child. These parents guide direction and provide explanation and solutions for further success of these children and therefore have a direct reflection on problem solving of adolescent issues. The article by (Spera, 2005) evaluates the information on the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. Spera speaks to research completed by Diane Baumrind that authoritative parents have high maturity demands and set expectations for achievement of their children. However, they foster maturity requests through bidirectional communication and encouragement of independence. The review of the practical research indicates that parental involvement and monitoring are strong predictors of adolescent achievement. Furthermore, the review specifies that authoritative parenting styles are often associated with advanced areas of student achievement. Parents find social skills important and entwine them in daily discussions with children. These topics can include social, academic and peer topics for discussion. Volunteering at school, helping children with homework and attending school events such as extracurricular activities are the many ways parents can stay  involved with child. Parents must initiate this type of involvement with children, as it will result in positive outcomes for the child. Moreover, Spera speaks to studies with adolescents that have found that parental assistance with homework is positively related to the amount of time adolescents spend on their homework. Parents who value the education as their child will result in those child to succeed in their academic practices as well as social interaction with peer groups (Spera, 2005). This results in personal and professional growth of the child. It also teaches children to respect their studies and understand why education is to be valued. Setting goals together can prove effective. Also, mature and self-confident children succeed with an authoritative parent if bidirectional communication is maintained. The abstract by (Turner, Chandler, and Heffer, 2009) also provides information about the effectiveness of appropriate parenting styles in relation to academic performance. The results of the current study of college students concludes that parenting characteristics such as concern, love and warmth continue to play an important role in prompting a student’s academic performance while in college. It also speaks to self- esteem as it relates to success in college students. In doing so, it discusses research and studies that tested the interaction between child self-efficacy and authoritative parenting. In general, an authoritative parenting style emphasizing both responsiveness and demandingness appears superior in fostering higher academic performance. This provides reasoning as to why authoritative parenting is effective in the child’s progress through adolescence and early adulthood. Several other studies by Diane Baumrind have indicated that there is a positive link between authoritative parenting style and academic performance. These children are motivated constantly by their parents and provide ongoing  reassurance of goals and values. Authoritative parents encourage a high self-esteem and promote the ability for the child to mature, organize and achieve goals in a warm, secure way. These positive actions build success and growth for the child as they learn to work through problems, difficult scenarios and achieve success academically. Self-efficacy is strongly related to academic achievement especially at the college level. Again parents play an important role to assist in the development of maturity and self-assurance of the child beginning early in life. As children mature and begin on their own at the college levels, parents still can play an important role on the continued success. According to studies reviewed in the article of (Turner, Chandler, and Heffer, 2009). Students who come from an authoritative parenting style not only achieve overall academic success but tend to have a higher GPA. Ongoing research over the years shows that establishing discipline through authoritative parenting is one of the most effective styles because it provides secure emotional development, allows a higher quality of supportive social relationships and enhances problem-solving skills for the child. The authoritative parenting style is one in which parents display warmth, rationalization and understanding that provide a sense of security and self-perseverance of the child. These parents allow child involvement with an emphasis on bidirectional communication. Parents provide ideal problem  solving skills at all ages for future success by demanding maturity from the child but provide a positive and encouraging approach with balance to a develop strong peer relationships. Authoritative parents provide warmth, understanding and love to promote a child’s self confidence for overall academic and personal achievement throughout life. REFERENCES Beck, K. (2011). The role of mothers’ authoritative  parenting in adolescent attachment and social relationships. [Abstract]. Cherry, K. (2013a). Parenting styles: the four styles of parenting. About.com Psychology. Retrievedfrom http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/paren ting-style.htm?r=et. Cherry, K. (2013b). What is authoritative parenting? About.com Guide to Psychology. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/childcare/f/authoritativeparenting.htm Dewar, G. (2013, March). The authoritative parenting style: Warmth, rationality, and high standards. A guide for the science-minded parent http://www.parentingscience.com/authoritative-parenting-style.html Dewar, G. (2010). Parenting styles: A guide for the science-minded http://www.parentingscience.com/parenting-styles.html Gurian, A. (2011, July). Parenting styles/children’s temperaments: the match. NYU Child Study Center. Retrieved from http://www.aboutourkids.org/articles/parenting_styleschildren039s_temperaments _match Harkey, N, & Jourgensen, T. (2012). Parenting by temperament: Authoritative parenting [Kindle edition]. Retrieved from Amazon.com Mohammad, M. Javidi, N., Samadzadeh, M. & Amini. M. ( 2012, September). 3332 Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 5 No. 9 Spera, C. (2005). A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 125-146 Turner, E., Chandler, M., Heffer, R. (2009, May/June). The influence of parenting styles, achievement motivation, and self-efficacy on academic performance in college students. Journal of College Student Development, Volume 50, (3), 337-346. Published by The Johns Hopkins University Press.

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Corporate Social Reporting - Essay Example Companies that embrace corporate social responsibility have received long-term positive benefits. These include better working conditions, which in turn increases productivity and innovation, increased trust and enhanced reputation with stakeholders and greater customer loyalty. Businesses also receive better publicity through media reports. Indeed, staff turnover in companies such as Starbucks and Bettys and Taylors is low. In the latter, its philanthropic ways extend all the way to the employees, who have seen improvements in working relations and strong ties are developed with suppliers that not only certify quality in their produce, but also ensure these produce are grown in a socially responsible manner (10). On the contrary, pressure groups are making their presence known. In 1995, Royal Dutch/Shell suffered negative publicity as well as heavy losses when European boycotted them in their bid to dispose an oil platform at sea (3). Evidently, the business practice of being social ly responsible is highly preferred. In a study on the power and size of firms, there are loopholes present in smaller organizations that, for instance, violate legal rights of workers in cleaning subcontractors. Although this issue is not uncommon with the larger firms, it is found that they exercise greater care as their business is reliant on the state (9). However, in another study, it is found that both small and large firms are likely to participate in corporate social responsibility moves based on their visibility, resource access and scale of operations (4). The two studies are rather conflicting evidence of how corporate social responsibility is adopted by firms of different sizes. Perhaps, a small business operating locally is not as likely to be subject to public scrutiny compared to a larger one operating globally. Larger organizations are embracing this practice far more, which gives them a competitive advantage as the stakeholders they affect are wider. Furthermore, they are able to attract younger talents who yearns more than fat remuneration packages (8). Small businesses, on the other hand, are driven to embrace this practice because differentiation is their key reliance. With this strategic foresight, they are able to find opportunities in a growing market (2). However, these all boils down to management decision on whether to embrace this philosophy or not. 2.3 The profitability strength of businesses that uses CSR As mentioned earlier, companies that adopt corporate social responsibility receive better recognition than those who do not. Customer loyalty and consumer trust are key points in sustaining a business as evident in the Body Shop. Smaller firms practising CSR are a great target for acquisition even though there have been no drastic change in their combined earnings or improvements in the way they carry out their business in terms of being socially responsible. Although consumers are looking for healthier options when buying products, it is found that only a handful will actually pay a premium for such

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Reflective paper - Essay Example Similarly, developments in the fields of Humanist theories, Learning theories, Cognitive theories, and behavioral theories have also opened new horizons of knowledge for the psychologists in dealing with their clients. This paper reflects on the major human development theories and analyses how far they have contributed in identifying and resolving the mental, Psychological, behavioral and physical problems of clients. To begin with, one can never undermine the contributions made by the Psycho Analytic theorists in understanding human development and problems associated with the developmental stages of clients. G. Stanley Hall, who tried to make a detailed study on Darwin’s evolutionary theory attempting to correlate childhood with previous ages of mankind, made his greatest achievement in his child centered research. His seminal book The contents of children’s minds, published in 1883, tried to resolve the history and the means of progress of mankind by the findings of what children know and when they learn it. Hall also accepted Sigmund Freud’s sexuality theory and believed that the sexualized energies of boys have to be promoted, channeled and managed. He is known as ‘the father of adolescence.’ Though his work has been considered outdated his ideas are still applicable in education, scouting and team sports. (G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)). Similarly, psychologi sts draw conclusions from Hall’s theories have which facilitated in identifying adolescent problems and in treating them. Hall’s theories are widely applied in the field of special education and they have proved to be highly beneficial in offering â€Å"individualized services for adolescents in grades 6-12 who have experienced depression, withdrawal, low self-esteem, socialization problems, learning disabilities, post traumatic stress disorder, or self-injurious behaviors† (G. Stanley Hall School). The term psycho analytic theory is originated with study of the great psychologist

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Research Questions & Hypotheses - Essay Example The campus and its supporters are very proud of the sports programs. The most popular sports are mens football and womens softball. Although the football team boasts of winning seasons year after year, it is by no means a powerhouse. The softball team, though, is consistently conference champions and once won the national championship. Therefore, the popularity of sports has been a solid marketing feature of the university along with its well-respected academic programs. Even with all this popularity, all parties agree it is important to grow the campus to maintain its reputation and compete with peer institutions. The new strategic plan at Foothills University reports a need to increase student enrollments by 15% over the next five years. As part of this initiative, three new academic programs are to be implemented, although the subject matter is open to study. Most of the universitys academic programs are at the bachelors level with 6,000 students and a few masters programs with 1,500 students. The executives and board of trustees thought about adding doctoral programs, but are concerned about the potential effects on the universitys liberal arts mission as well as the impact to finances. The Vice President for Academic Affairs has been tasked by the president to oversee the process. Not wanting to make rash decisions about where to increase enrollments and what type of programs to implement, the VP convened a task force to research the issues. He expects the task force to conduct formal, empirical research to study the issues. It has been unanimously agreed that the crux of economic development and poverty alleviation lie in the education. That’s the reason that colleges and universities are deemed not only an engine to socio-economic development but also recognized as invaluable economic assets. Findings suggest that socioeconomic factors and academic factors are not all that separated; they work in tandem. The academically and

Deforestation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Deforestation - Research Paper Example â€Å"The average facade temperature of the globe has augmented more than 1 degree Fahrenheit since 1900 and the speed of warming has been almost three folds the century long average since 1970† (Global warming). Eilperin (2009) mentioned that the earth’s surface temperature has been increased around 0.750 C during the last century itself and the atmospheric temperature may even go up by 6 degrees before the end of the current century (Eilperin). Global warming and climate changes are some of the worst problems facing by the human community at present. Atmospheric temperature is rising rapidly for the last few decades and as a result of that unexpected weather calamities are occurring. Many studies have proved that the average atmospheric temperature has increased more than 1 degree Fahrenheit since 1900. Sea level rise is another major problem created by global warming. It should be noted that atmospheric temperature rise increases the melting of huge ice blocks from P olar Regions and as a result of that sea level is increasing gradually. Unexpected floods, storms, earthquakes, tsunami, etc are other problems associated with global warming. Plenty of reasons were cited for global warming problems. Some people believe that manmade activities are causing global warming whereas others are of the view that solar activities are causing these problems. In any case, one thing is sure- atmospheric temperature is rising much rapidly at present. Greenhouse gas emissions from automobiles and industrial units are often cited as the major reason for global warming; however, many people believe that deforestation is the major reason for global warming and climate change problems.... But when forests are logged or burnt, that carbon is released into the atmosphere, increasing the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and accelerating the rate of climate change. So much carbon is released that they contribute up to one-fifth of global man-made emissions, more than the world's entire transport sector (Deforestation and climate change). Human consumes oxygen from atmosphere for breathing purpose whereas plants or forests consume carbon dioxide from atmosphere for making food or photosynthesis process. It should be noted that plants are the only food manufacturers in this world and all the other living things rely heavily on plants in one way or another for their food needs. On the other hand, atmospheric carbon dioxide is essential for the food manufacturing processes of the plants. Plants have the ability of liberating oxygen to atmosphere at the time of food manufacturing. In other words, plants consume carbon dioxide and liberate oxygen to atmospher e. Forests are our own natural resources which no man can imitate. It has its own part in the biodiversity of life even if man refuses to acknowledge them. One of the most important roles our forests play is absorbing carbon dioxide from the air—tons of it, for that matter. Without them, the ever harmful carbon dioxide will just float above our heads, further increasing greenhouse gas emissions (How Deforestation Affects Climate Change). There is a balance between the volume of carbon dioxide and the volume of oxygen in the atmosphere. Plants are responsible for maintaining this oxygen-carbon dioxide ration in atmosphere. It should not be forgotten that carbon and its oxides like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide etc have the ability to increase

Ethical Policies Essay Example for Free

Ethical Policies Essay The first one I have chosen is technically referred to as â€Å"Bribery or 18 USC  § 201-Type Violations† is a law implemented to any individual who puts forward, pledges, or gives anything to a â€Å"public official† to pressure, manipulate, or persuade any â€Å"official act† (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). It is a law which prohibits any â€Å"public official† to insist, ask for, or accept anything in exchange of performing an â€Å"official act† (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). The second is technically known as â€Å"Conflict of Interest or 18 USC  § 208-Type Violations†, which prohibits any person working for the â€Å"executive branch of the United States Government† or any â€Å"independent agency of the United States† to play a part in the endorsement, authorization, censure, rendering of advice, arrest, contract, wherein he or she has a financial interest in (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). Last but not least is technically referred to as â€Å"Misuse of Government-Owned Vehicles or 31 U. S. C.  § 1349†, which disallows the use of government-owned vehicles in â€Å"unofficial business†, meaning, transactions/travels/etcetera which are not authorized by the government (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). Examples An example of â€Å"Bribery or 18 USC  § 201-Type Violations† is this: â€Å"A man who wanted to his visa to another country be approved as soon as possible and so he offered money and jewelries to the officer in charge of the approval and issuance of visa and because the officer in charge accepted it, he was charged with bribery† (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). On the other hand, an example of â€Å"Conflict of Interest or 18 USC  § 208-Type Violations† is this: â€Å"A caterer, who is the wife of the mayor’s secretary, has been allowed to cater for the dinner meeting at the mayor’s office; the secretary ought to be charged here because he used the office the mayor to enter into contract with his wife, which apparently shows conflict of interest† (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). Finally, an example for the â€Å"Misuse of Government-Owned Vehicles or 31 U. S. C.  § 1349† is this: â€Å"A regional director uses the government vehicle even after office hours to go to the casino, meet with realtors, or attend Rotary Club meetings† (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). Possible Fines/Punishment for the Violation Meanwhile, if an individual is proven guilty with the first violation that I have chosen first, which is technically referred to as â€Å"Bribery or 18 USC  § 201-Type Violations†, the person may be obliged to pay a fine or he or she may be sent to prison for two (2) years or less, or he or she could be made to pay for the fine and at the same time may also be sent to prison (Cornell University Law School, n. d. , n. p. ). Similarly, if an individual is proven guilty with the second violation that I have discussed briefly, which is technically known as â€Å"Conflict of Interest or 18 USC  § 208-Type Violations†, the person may be obliged to pay a fine or he or she may be sent to prison for one (1) year or less, or he or she could be made to pay for the fine and at the same time may also be sent to prison (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). With the last violation discussed, â€Å"Misuse of Government-Owned Vehicles or 31 U. S. C.  § 1349†, if an individual is proven guilty of it, he or she is given one (1) month suspension or more depending on how bad one’s case is (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). A person proven guilty of the aforementioned may also be â€Å"removed from office† (Department of Defense, 2006, n. p. ). One Ethical Policy that I would Like to Change If given the opportunity I would like to make some changes with regards to the policy on the â€Å"Misuse of Government-Owned Vehicles or 31 U. S. C.  § 1349†. Since money is scarce nowadays, everyone should be obliged to save; including those in the government and one way to save is not to use government vehicles in unofficial businesses. The punishment should not be just suspension or being fired from work, guilty individuals should also be sent to prison so that they will serve as examples because if the punishment is as â€Å"light† or â€Å"easy† as getting fired or suspended then most employees will not really be prevented to violated this law. References Cornell University Law School. (n. d. ).  § 201. Bribery of Public Officials and Witnesses.Retrieved July 22, 2008 from http://www4. law. cornell. edu/uscode/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00000201-000-. html Department of Interior (2006). Department Manual. Retrieved July 22, 2008 from http://elips. doi. gov/elips/release/3712. htm Department of Defense. (2006). Encyclopedia of Ethical Failure. Retrieved July 22, 2008 from http://209. 85. 175. 104/search? q=cache:REUtRKuChKEJ:www. dod. mil/dodgc/defense_ethics/dod_oge/Encyclopedia_of_Ethical_Failures_2006_Full_Version. doc+Encyclopedia+of+Ethical+Failure. hl=enct=clnkcd=1gl=phclient=firefox-a

A Report On Nuclear Weapons Engineering Essay

A Report On Nuclear Weapons Engineering Essay A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter; a modern thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than a thousand kilograms can produce an explosion comparable to the detonation of more than a billion kilograms of conventional high explosive. Thus, even single small nuclear devices no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire and radiation. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction, and their use and control has been a major focus of international relations policy since their debut. In the history of warfare, only two nuclear weapons have been detonated offensively, both near the end of World War II. The first was detonated on the morning of 6 August 1945, when the United States dropped a uranium gun-type device code-named Little Boy on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The second was detonated three days later when the United States dropped a plutonium implosion-type device code-named Fat Man on the city of Nagasaki, Japan. These bombings resulted in the immediate deaths of an estimated 80,000 people (mostly civilians) from injuries sustained from the explosion. When factoring in deaths from long-term effects of ionizing radiation and acute radiation sickness, the total death toll is estimated at 120,000. The use of these weapons remains controversial. Since the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for testing purposes and demonstration purposes. A few states have possessed such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and that acknowledge possessing such weapons—are (chronologically) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, the Peoples Republic of China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. Israel is also widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, though it does not acknowledge having them. There are two basic types of nuclear weapon. The first type produces its explosive energy through nuclear fission reactions alone. Such fission weapons are commonly referred to as atomic bombs or atom bombs (abbreviated as A-bombs), though their energy comes specifically from the nucleus of the atom. In fission weapons, a mass of fissile material (enriched uranium or plutonium) is assembled into a supercritical mass—the amount of material needed to start an exponentially growing nuclear chain reaction—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the gun method) or by compressing a sub-critical sphere of material using chemical explosives to many times its original density (the implosion method). The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the latter approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of less than a ton of TNT upwards of 500,000 tons (500 kilotons) of TNT. The second basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large amount of its energy through nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquially as hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). However, all such weapons derive a significant portion, and sometimes a majority, of their energy from fission (including fission induced by neutrons from fusion reactions). Unlike fission weapons, there are no inherent limits on the energy released by thermonuclear weapons. Only six countries—United States, Russia, United Kingdom, Peoples Republic of China, France and India—have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. (Whether India has detonated a true, multi-staged thermonuclear weapon is controversial.) The basics of the Teller–Ulam design for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel. Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the Teller-Ulam design, which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (tritium, deuterium, or lithium deuteride) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, gamma and X-rays emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed neutrons, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as depleted uranium. Each of these components is known as a stage, with the fission bomb as the primary and the fusion capsule as the secondary. In large hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield, and much of the resulting nuclear fallout, comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium. By chaining together numerous stages with increasing amounts of fusion fuel, thermonuclear weapons can be made to an almost arbitrary yield; the largest ever detonated (the Tsar Bomba of the USSR) released an energy equivalent of over 50 million tons (50 megatons) of TNT. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints arising from the space and weight requirements of missile warheads. There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb which increases its explosive yield through a small amount of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. Some weapons are designed for special purposes; a neutron bomb is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron radiation; such a device could theoretically be used to cause massive casualties while leaving infrastructure mostly intact and creating a minimal amount of fallout. The detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of neutron radiation. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as cobalt or gold) creates a weapon known as a salted bomb. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of radioactive contamination. Most variation in nuclear weapon design is for the purpose of achieving different yields for different situations, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size. Nuclear weapons delivery—the technology and systems used to bring a nuclear weapon to its target—is an important aspect of nuclear weapons relating both to nuclear weapon design and nuclear strategy. Additionally, development and maintenance of delivery options is among the most resource-intensive aspects of a nuclear weapons program: according to one estimate, deployment costs accounted for 57% of the total financial resources spent by the United States in relation to nuclear weapons since 1940. Historically the first method of delivery, and the method used in the two nuclear weapons actually used in warfare, was as a gravity bomb, dropped from bomber aircraft. This method is usually the first developed by countries as it does not place many restrictions on the size of the weapon and weapon miniaturization is something which requires considerable weapons design knowledge. It does, however, limit the range of attack, the response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons which can be fielded at any given time. With the advent of miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers, allowing an air force to use its current fleet with little or no modification. This method may still be considered the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the B61. More preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted onto a missile, which can use a ballistic trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. While even short range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success. More advanced systems, such as multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) allow multiple warheads to be launched at different targets from one missile, reducing the chance of a successful missile defense. Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be a difficult task. Tactical weapons (see above) have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also artillery shells, land mines, and nuclear depth charges and torpedoes for anti-submarine warfare. An atomic mortar was also tested at one time by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as suitcase bombs), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, have been developed, although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility. Nuclear strategy The United States Peacekeeper missile was a MIRVed delivery system. Each missile could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red), each of which could be aimed at a different target. These were developed to make missile defense very difficult for an enemy country. Nuclear warfare Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability to completely destroy an enemys nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists in nuclear-enabled countries worked out models of what sorts of policies could prevent one from ever being attacked by a nuclear weapon. Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. The goals of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptive strike against the weapon system and difficult to defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden, such as deploying them on submarines or rail cars whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track and other times this means protecting them by burying them in hardened bunkers. Other components of nuclear strategies have included using missile defense (to destroy the missiles before they land) or implementation of civil defense measures (using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack). Note that weapons which are designed to threaten large populations or to generally deter attacks are known as strategic weapons. Weapons which are designed to actually be used on a battlefield in military situations are known as tactical weapons. There are critics of the very idea of nuclear strategy for waging nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear war between two nuclear powers would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is purely to deter war because any nuclear war would immediately escalate. out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism. Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. The use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, according to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice in 1996. Perhaps the most controversial idea in nuclear strategy is that nuclear proliferation would be desirable. This view argues that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states, and they are said to have done this during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Political scientist Kenneth Waltz is the most prominent advocate of this argument. The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of nuclear terrorism) complicates the decision process. Mutually assured destruction may not be effective against an enemy who expects to die in a confrontation and would not therefore be deterred by a sense of self-preservation. Further, if the initial act is from a rogue group instead of a sovereign nation, there is no fixed nation or fixed military targets to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the September 11, 2001 attacks, that this complication is the sign of the next age of nuclear strategy, distinct from the relative stability of the Cold War. Disarmament Beginning with the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty and continuing through the 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, there have been many treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles. The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty has as one of its explicit conditions that all signatories must pursue negotiations in good faith towards the long-term goal of complete disarmament. However, no nuclear state has treated that aspect of the agreement as having binding force Only one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. A number of former Soviet republics—Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine—returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR. Uses The Sedan test from 1962 formed a crater 100 m (330 ft) deep with a diameter of about 390 m (1,300 ft), as a means of investigating the possibilities of using peaceful nuclear explosions for large-scale earth moving. Apart from their use as weapons, nuclear explosives have been tested and used for various non-military uses, and proposed, but not used for large-scale earth moving. When long term health and clean-up costs were included, there was no economic advantage over conventional explosives. Synthetic elements, such as einsteinium and fermium, created by neutron bombardment of uranium and plutonium during thermonuclear explosions, were discovered in the aftermath of the first thermonuclear bomb test. In 2008 the worldwide presence of new isotopes from atmospheric testing beginning in the 1950s was developed into a reliable way of detecting art forgeries, as all paintings created after that period may contain traces of cesium-137 and strontium-90, isotopes that did not exist in nature before 1945. Nuclear explosives have also been seriously studied as potential propulsion mechanisms for space travel (see Project Orion). Nuclear reactions Nuclear fission splits heavier atoms to form lighter atoms. Nuclear fusion bonds together lighter atoms to form heavier atoms. Both reactions generate roughly a million times more energy than comparable chemical reactions, making nuclear bombs a million times more powerful than non-nuclear bombs, which a French patent claimed in May 1939. In some ways, fission and fusion are opposite and complementary reactions, but the particulars are unique for each. To understand how nuclear weapons are designed, it is useful to know the important similarities and differences between fission and fusion. The following explanation uses rounded numbers and approximations. Fission When a free neutron hits the nucleus of a fissionable atom like uranium-235 ( 235U), the uranium splits into two smaller atoms called fission fragments, plus more neutrons. Fission can be self-sustaining because it produces more neutrons of the speed required to cause new fissions. The uranium atom can split any one of dozens of different ways, as long as the atomic weights add up to 236 (uranium plus the extra neutron). The following equation shows one possible split, namely into strontium-95 ( 95Sr), xenon-139 (139Xe), and two neutrons (n), plus energy: The immediate energy release per atom is 180 million electron volts (MeV), i.e. 74 TJ/kg, of which 90% is kinetic energy (or motion) of the fission fragments, flying away from each other mutually repelled by the positive charge of their protons (38 for strontium, 54 for xenon). Thus their initial kinetic energy is 67 TJ/kg, hence their initial speed is 12,000 kilometers per second, but their high electric charge causes many inelastic collisions with nearby nuclei. The fragments remain trapped inside the bombs uranium pit until their motion is converted into x-ray heat, a process which takes about a millionth of a second (a microsecond). This x-ray energy produces the blast and fire which are normally the purpose of a nuclear explosion. After the fission products slow down, they remain radioactive. Being new elements with too many neutrons, they eventually become stable by means of beta decay, converting neutrons into protons by throwing off electrons and gamma rays. Each fission product nucleus decays between one and six times, average three times, producing a variety of isotopes of different elements, some stable, some highly radioactive, and others radioactive with half-lives up to 200,000 years In reactors, the radioactive products are the nuclear waste in spent fuel. In bombs, they become radioactive fallout, both local and global. Meanwhile, inside the exploding bomb, the free neutrons released by fission strike nearby U-235 nuclei causing them to fission in an exponentially growing chain reaction (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.). Starting from one, the number of fissions can theoretically double a hundred times in a microsecond, which could consume all uranium up to hundreds of tons by the hundredth link in the chain. In practice, bombs do not contain that much uranium, and, anyway, just a few kilograms undergo fission before the uranium blows itself apart. Holding an exploding bomb together is the greatest challenge of fission weapon design. The heat of fission rapidly expands the uranium pit, spreading apart the target nuclei and making space for the neutrons to escape without being captured. The chain reaction stops. Materials which can sustain a chain reaction are called fissile. The two fissile materials used in nuclear weapons are: U-235, also known as highly enriched uranium (HEU), oralloy (Oy) meaning Oak Ridge Alloy, or 25 (the last digits of the atomic number, which is 92 for uranium, and the atomic weight, here 235, respectively); and Pu-239, also known as plutonium, or 49 (from 94 and 239). Uraniums most common isotope, U-238, is fissionable but not fissile (meaning that it cannot sustain a chain reaction by itself but can be made to fission, specifically by neutrons from a fusion reaction). Its aliases include natural or unenriched uranium, depleted uranium (DU), tubealloy (Tu), and 28. It cannot sustain a chain reaction, because its own fission neutrons are not powerful enough to cause more U-238 fission. However, the neutrons released by fusion will fission U-238. This U-238 fission reaction produces most of the destructive energy in a typical two-stage thermonuclear weapon. Fusion Fusion is unlikely to be self-sustaining because it does not produce the heat and pressure necessary for more fusion. It produces neutrons which run away with the energy In weapons, the most important fusion reaction is called the D-T reaction. Using the heat and pressure of fission, hydrogen-2, or deuterium ( 2D), fuses with hydrogen-3, or tritium ( 3T), to form helium-4 ( 4He) plus one neutron (n) and energy Notice that the total energy output, 17.6 MeV, is one tenth of that with fission, but the ingredients are only one-fiftieth as massive, so the energy output per unit mass is greater. However, in this fusion reaction 80% of the energy, or 14 MeV, is in the motion of the neutron which, having no electric charge and being almost as massive as the hydrogen nuclei that created it, can escape the scene without leaving its energy behind to help sustain the reaction – or to generate x-rays for blast and fire. The only practical way to capture most of the fusion energy is to trap the neutrons inside a massive bottle of heavy material such as lead, uranium, or plutonium. If the 14 MeV neutron is captured by uranium (either type: 235 or 238) or plutonium, the result is fission and the release of 180 MeV of fission energy, multiplying the energy output tenfold. Fission is thus necessary to start fusion, helps to sustain fusion, and captures and multiplies the energy released in fusion neutrons. In the case of a neutron bomb (see below) the last-mentioned does not apply since the escape of neutrons is the objective. Tritium production A third important nuclear reaction is the one that creates tritium, essential to the type of fusion used in weapons and, incidentally, the most expensive ingredient in any nuclear weapon. Tritium, or hydrogen-3, is made by bombarding lithium-6 ( 6Li) with a neutron (n) to produce helium-4 ( 4He) plus tritium ( 3T) and energy: A nuclear reactor is necessary to provide the neutrons. The industrial-scale conversion of lithium-6 to tritium is very similar to the conversion of uranium-238 into plutonium-239. In both cases the feed material is placed inside a nuclear reactor and removed for processing after a period of time. In the 1950s, when reactor capacity was limited, the production of tritium and plutonium were in direct competition. Every atom of tritium in a weapon replaced an atom of plutonium that could have been produced instead. The fission of one plutonium atom releases ten times more total energy than the fusion of one tritium atom, and it generates fifty times more blast and fire. For this reason, tritium is included in nuclear weapon components only when it causes more fission than its production sacrifices, namely in the case of fusion-boosted fission. However, an exploding nuclear bomb is a nuclear reactor. The above reaction can take place simultaneously throughout the secondary of a two-stage thermonuclear weapon, producing tritium in place as the device explodes. Of the three basic types of nuclear weapon, the first, pure fission, uses the first of the three nuclear reactions above. The second, fusion-boosted fission, uses the first two. The third, two-stage thermonuclear, uses all three. Pure fission weapons The first task of a nuclear weapon design is to rapidly assemble a supercritical mass of fissile uranium or plutonium. A supercritical mass is one in which the percentage of fission-produced neutrons captured by another fissile nucleus is large enough that each fission event, on average, causes more than one additional fission event. Once the critical mass is assembled, at maximum density, a burst of neutrons is supplied to start as many chain reactions as possible. Early weapons used an urchin inside the pit containing polonium-210 and beryllium separated by a thin barrier. Implosion of the pit crushed the urchin, mixing the two metals, thereby allowing alpha particles from the polonium to interact with beryllium to produce free neutrons. In modern weapons, the neutron generator is a high-voltage vacuum tube containing a particle accelerator which bombards a deuterium/tritium-metal hydride target with deuterium and tritium ions. The resulting small-scale fusion produces neutrons at a protected location outside the physics package, from which they penetrate the pit. This method allows better control of the timing of chain reaction initiation. The critical mass of an uncompressed sphere of bare metal is 110lb (50kg) for uranium-235 and 35lb (16kg) for delta-phase plutonium-239. In practical applications, the amount of material required for criticallity is modified by shape, purity, density, and the proximity to neutron-reflecting material, all of which affect the escape or capture of neutrons. To avoid a chain reaction during handling, the fissile material in the weapon must be sub-critical before detonation. It may consist of one or more components containing less than one uncompressed critical mass each. A thin hollow shell can have more than the bare-sphere critical mass, as can a cylinder, which can be arbitrarily long without ever reaching criticallity. A tamper is an optional layer of dense material surrounding the fissile material. Due to its inertia it delays the expansion of the reacting material, increasing the efficiency of the weapon. Often the same layer serves both as tamper and as neutron reflector. Gun-type assembly weapon Diagram of a gun-type fission weapon Little Boy, the Hiroshima bomb, used 141lb (64kg) of uranium with an average enrichment of around 80%, or 112lb (51kg) of U-235, just about the bare-metal critical mass. (See Little Boy article for a detailed drawing.) When assembled inside its tamper/reflector of tungsten carbide, the 141lb (64kg) was more than twice critical mass. Before the detonation, the uranium-235 was formed into two sub-critical pieces, one of which was later fired down a gun barrel to join the other, starting the atomic explosion. About 1% of the uranium underwent fission; the remainder, representing most of the entire wartime output of the giant factories at Oak Ridge, scattered uselessly. The inefficiency was caused by the speed with which the uncompressed fissioning uranium expanded and became sub-critical by virtue of decreased density. Despite its inefficiency, this design, because of its shape, was adapted for use in small-diameter, cylindrical artillery shells (a gun-type warhead fired from the barrel of a much larger gun). Such warheads were deployed by the United States until 1992, accounting for a significant fraction of the U-235 in the arsenal, and were some of the first weapons dismantled to comply with treaties limiting warhead numbers. The rationale for this decision was undoubtedly a combination of the lower yield and grave safety issues associated with the gun-type design. Implosion type weapon Fat Man, the Nagasaki bomb, used 13.6lb (6.2kg, about 12 fluid ounces or 350 ml in volume) of Pu-239, which is only 39% of bare-sphere critical mass. (See Fat Man article for a detailed drawing.) Surrounded by a U-238 reflector/tamper, the pit was brought close to critical mass by the neutron-reflecting properties of the U-238. During detonation, criticality was achieved by implosion. The plutonium pit was squeezed to increase its density by simultaneous detonation of the conventional explosives placed uniformly around the pit. The explosives were detonated by multiple exploding-bridgewire detonators. It is estimated that only about 20% of the plutonium underwent fission, the rest, about 11lb (5.0kg), was scattered. An implosion shock wave might be of such short duration that only a fraction of the pit is compressed at any instant as the wave passes through it.A pusher shell made out of low density metal—such as aluminum, beryllium, or an alloy of the two metals (aluminum being easier and safer to shape and beryllium for its high-neutron-reflective capability) —may be needed. The pusher is located between the explosive lens and the tamper. It works by reflecting some of the shock wave backwards, thereby having the effect of lengthening its duration. Fat Man used an aluminum pusher.The key to Fat Mans greater efficiency was the inward momentum of the massive U-238 tamper (which did not undergo fission). Once the chain reaction started in the plutonium, the momentum of the implosion had to be reversed before expansion could stop the fission. By holding everything together for a few hundred nanoseconds more, the efficiency was increased. Two-point linear implosion A very inefficient implosion design is one that simply reshapes an ovoid into a sphere, with minimal compression. In linear implosion, an untamped, solid, elongated mass of Pu-239, larger than critical mass in a sphere, is embedded inside a cylinder of high explosive with a detonator at each end Detonation makes the pit critical by driving the ends inward, creating a spherical shape. The shock may also change plutonium from delta to alpha phase, increasing its density by 23%, but without the inward momentum of a true implosion. The lack of compression makes it inefficient, but the simplicity and small diameter make it suitable for use in artillery shells and atomic demolition munitions – ADMs – also known as backpack or suitcase nukes. All such low-yield battlefield weapons, whether gun-type U-235 designs or linear implosion Pu-239 designs, pay a high price in fissile material in order to achieve diameters between six and ten inches (254mm). Fusion-boosted fission weapons The next step in miniaturization was to speed up the fissioning of the pit to reduce the minimum inertial confinement time. The hollow pit provided an ideal location to introduce fusion for the boosting of fission. A 50-50 mixture of tritium and deuterium gas, pumped into the pit during arming, will fuse into helium and release free neutrons soon after fission begins. The neutrons will start a large number of new chain reactions while the pit is still critical or nearly critical.Once the hollow pit is perfected, there is little reason not to boost.The concept of fusion-boosted fission was first tested on May 25, 1951, in the Item shot of Operation Greenhouse, Eniwetok, yield 45.5 kilotons.Boosting reduces diameter in three ways, all the result of faster fission: Since the compressed pit does not need to be held together as long, the massive U-238 tamper can be replaced by a light-weight beryllium shell (to reflect escaping neutrons back into the pit). The diameter is reduced. The mass of the pit can be reduced by half, without reducing yield. Diameter is reduced again. Since the mass of the metal being imploded (tamper plus pit) is reduced, a smaller charge of high explosive is needed, reducing diameter even further. Since boosting is required to attain full design yield, any reduction in boosting reduces yield. Boosted weapons are thus variable-yield weapons. Yield can be reduced any time before detonation, simply by putting less than the full amount of tritium into the pit during the arming procedure. The first device whose dimensions suggest employment of all these features (two-point, hollow-pit, fusion-boosted implosion) was the Swan device, tested June 22, 1956, as the Inca shot of Operation Redwing, a

Trumps Immigration Policies: Implications

Trumps Immigration Policies: Implications Since the election of President Trump, American immigration policy has come to reflect an increasingly draconian, anti-immigrant perspective. Between Trumps trademark pledge to build a wall on the Mexican border, his harsh crackdown on deportations as well as his inchoate, legally fraught attempts ban immigration from majority-Muslim nations, the scapegoating of immigrants (both documented and undocumented) has come to represent a fundamental cornerstone of both his campaign and nascent presidency. While his arguments are largely economic in nature, claiming that his proposals will open up jobs for American workers and raise wages (Trump, n.d.), the practical implications of such legislation are much more dangerous, and ultimately economically unsound. This paper examines the effects of an undocumented immigration crackdown on the national grocery industry. In spite of Trumps fear mongering rhetoric that Mexico takes advantage of the United States by using illegal immigration to export the crime and poverty in their own country (Trump, n.d.), undocumented workers actually play a crucial role in supplying Americas groceries. With Reuters reporting that up to 70% of farm workers may be undocumented (Abbott, 2013), it appears that immigrants are not actually job thieves; rather, they take jobs that, even in their absence, Americans refuse to fill (Dwoskin, 2011). In the absence of that labor, Americas farm industry stands to lose as much as $9 billion annually (Abbott, 2013). This leaves two options for producers in the agriculture industry: shut down (causing nationwide food shortages and economic damage as the US adjusts to a forced spike in food imports), or raise wages to hire American workers. If Trumps policies (including a tax on Mexican imports) work as intended, the latter will still be the most economically sound option, and Amer ican farms will begin employing native workers at higher wages. In order to offset the increased labor costs, however, farms will be forced to raise their prices significantly or go out of business, causing a shift in the supply curve (as opposed to movement along the curve). However, the fundamental Law of Demand states that a correlate decrease in demand will follow the jump in prices. While the demand for fresh fruits and vegetables in the US is relatively inelastic, at 0.71 and 0.98, respectively (Andreyeva, Long Brownell, 2010), the inelasticity is not perfect; resultantly, disadvantaged Americans will begin consuming inferior goods such as processed foods (which have long shelf lives and cheap production costs). In this way, sourcing American laborers with higher wages would not be a profitable alternative to the current system, as illustrated in the following chart: At this point, the farm industry would again be left with three choices: either lower wages (causing an exodus of workers), lay off workers and align to a new, smaller economy of scale (causing more movement of the supply curve), or shut down entirely (causing, again, grocery shortages and greater importing of food). Interestingly, a possibility also exists that Trumps policies may actually have the effect of lowering wages straight away; this would result from one other noteworthy, though unintentional, consequence: decreased reporting by undocumented workers of labor violations (Jamieson, 2017). As undocumented laborers increasingly fear deportation, they may be less likely to inform authorities of violations such as forced overtime and wage theft. The lack of reporting would then ultimately strengthen (not weaken) the motivation for unethical employers to cheat their laborers. Combined with the Trump administrations lax attitude towards business regulation, the argument that his policies may backfire remains compelling. Regardless of the actual effect of Trumps crackdown on undocumented immigration, one consensus is clear: its will not go as planned, and may cause significant damage to the US economy. WORKS CITED Abbott, C. (2013, April 22). Import workers or food, U.S. farm bloc says of immigration debate (R. Krasny D. Grebler, Eds.). Retrieved March 08, 2017, from http://www.reuters.com/article/usa-immigration-farmworkers-idUSL2N0D91LR20130422 Andreyeva, T., Long, M. W., Brownell, K. D. (2010). The Impact of Food Prices on Consumption: A Systematic Review of Research on the Price Elasticity of Demand for Food. American Journal of Public Health, 100(2), 216-222. doi:10.2105/ajph.2008.151415 Dwoskin, E. (2011, November 09). Why Americans Wont Do Dirty Jobs. Retrieved March 08, 2017, from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-11-09/why-americans-wont-do-dirty-jobs Jamieson, D. (2017, March 08). Donald Trumps Immigration Crackdown Is Silencing Exploited Workers. Retrieved March 09, 2017, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/trump-immigrant-worker-abuse_us_58c03352e4b054a0ea66eef0 Trump, D. J. (n.d.). Immigration Reform That Will Make America Great Again. Retrieved February 08, 2017, from https://assets.donaldjtrump.com/Immigration-Reform-Trump.pdf

Constructivism :: essays research papers fc

Students need to be able to learn how to become effective problem solvers. They should be able to identify problems, evaluate those problems and then decipher a way to transfer their learning to those problems in a way that will bring about a solution. If a student is able to perform in a problem solving situation a meaningful learning should then occur because he has constructed an interpretation of how things work using preexisting structured. This is the theory behind Constructivism. By creating a personal interpretation of external ideas and experiances, constructivism allows students the ability to understand how ideas can relate to each other and preexisting knowledge. A teacher must then recognize the importance of the cognative and social approaches for learning and teaching so that she may aid the students' development in constructivist learning. Both approaches are valuable because one will emphasize the role of cognative processes and the other will emphasize culture and social interaction in the role of meaningful learning. One, however, may wonder how to go about enforcing these approaches. One method is through scaffolding, providing a student with sufficient information to be able to complete a task on his own or, to present a gradual decrease in the amount of help availible allowing the student the capacity to work independantly. Situated learning will present the student with a set of learning tasks placed in realistic contexts. This will include the abilities to use knowledge in a functioning learning approach and acquiring inert knowledge based on the learning of isolated facts in limited conditions. Lastly, students should, through the use of multiple perspectives, be able to view problems and ideas. These ideas presented will then be able to shed light on the nature of problem solving. There are three most common types of problems, the first being well-structured problems. Well-structured problems are ones clearly stated with known solution procedures and evaluation standards; an example being a mathamatical process. Another type of problem are those that are ill-structured; they are stated vaguely, have unclear solution procedures, and vague standards of evalalution. The third type, issue problems, are ill-structured problems that will arrouse srtong feelings in the students. The first step in helping students become adaquate problems solvers is assuring they realize that a problem does exist. Once a problem is identifiedm students should be expected to understand the nature of the problem. The next logical step would then be for those students to compile all relevant information to their problem allowing them to formulate and carry out a solution. Lastly, the students would then be required to evaluate their solutions working out the

History of Brown vs. Board Through Art :: Race Racial Segregation American History

History Through Art Brown vs. Board was a landmark case that changed America’s education forever. Some of these changes produced many opinions among the different states. One county even shut their public schools down for five years and posted signs blaming it on the Government. I am shocked that picture wasn’t in the exhibition at the Krannert Art Museum. Many of the featured artists have found their calling in capturing some aspects of the racial issue especially the equal education facet. The forms of painting and photography will remain in our world for many years and will help educate future generations on how those in our time coped with the feelings that racism brought to many of us. The exhibit in the museum stimulated my curiosity in the social realm of the decision in that courtroom. People began to see their futures differently. One painting that struck me as inspirational was Brett Cook-Dizney’s self-portrait. The colors he used were mainly bright. This usage of bright tones forced me to think about the reason he used them. Brett Cook-Dizney arranged the colors around his figure in such a way that the tones seemed to give the portrait a glow. He had many achievements that surrounded his painting that caused me to figure out why he used those bright colors; he was a bright young man. The painting had taken him three years to portray his feelings through his artistic approach. He had graduated high school in 1986, thirty years after Brown vs. Board. His work showed that there were still issues in racial equality in the school. Cook- Dizney’s self-portrait seemed to be a way to show the world how he wanted to be seen as opposed to how his teachers and peers saw him. In art he could paint himself in his true light. Cook-Dizney noticed that he had a shot at a bright future and owed much of it to the decision of Brown vs. Board. This court result offered him a chance to pursue a better education. You can see this in his work. He took his own critical approach to his self-image and made the viewer see him his way. This is an effective action for even the amateur art appreciator. After looking at this painting for a few minutes, you can feel the way he feels about the person he is and hopes to be. Brett Cook-Dizney had a couple more note-worthy paintings on display.

Technology and Modern Age

Sunday for me is the gloomiest part of the week. I always feel I am missing about an hour of sleep and still, somewhere in my sub consciousness. I have to face the dilemma of what to do for the coming hours as well. Being at the transitional state of dream and reality, it would help me to be more creative if the selection of activities is less limited. The option includes the way the Modern Age generate happiness and the Purposeful Leisure. One of the most popular is the way done by the Modern Age since it gives us a wide selection and various inventions to choose from.For people with a gaming instinct, the choice is plentiful. For instance Computer Games develop by every generation have conquer the minds of teenagers. An example is a Warcraft Game made by Icefrog, consisting of different characters possessing skills and can be strengthen by the use of magical things. Computers now are very innovative that its content is advance and unique. It can finish a pile of works in an hour wi thout numerous errors, unlike the past years which requires a lot of effort to have your projects and assignments be done.For a person who’s up for fighting, Arcade Games were made to make them feel as they were the warrior fighting for a prize. Arcade Games are commonly made as survival test; it may be a survival from Zombies, Militaries, Dinosaurs and many more. For lame people who still find time to play, PSP is very suitable, since it is not as big as Computers and Arcade machines. PSP can be downloaded with different games and can be played wherever you are. Another option that might satisfy one’s boredom is PURPOSEFUL LEISURE perhaps not as popular as MODERN AGE way but just as fun to do; this activity does not fall in the â€Å"killing time† category.It does however, command the respect of other activity, it is healthy and known to lower the calories level. Going out to make window shopping is much interesting than spending your money on repeat gaming. Ha ving a youth camp on mountains or just simply playing Local games gives us the simplest and cheapest way of having fun. As I think of the two options, I guess Sunday’s of mine must be spending wisely. I may not like the Purposeful Leisure since it doesn’t have much excitement, but I know that it will make me healthy.I may love the Modern Age since it gives me new challenges but I will still prevent myself from getting addicted to it since it weakens the body’s immune system. On the year 1994, Modern Age has begun, Innovations and various inventions started to create names in public. Science and Technology has made a long way on the society. Even adults are engaged to the technological advancement. Changes are so fast and all of us need to adapt quickly. Using Technologies is very efficient. We don’t have to spend a lot of money and we don’t need to give a lot of power to finish a work.On the other hand, it is not difficult for some of us to be amus ed, even you are at home or on the middle of a vacation trip, you can still find time to relax by just moving your hands and by the focus of your eyes and mind. Despite the numerous values of technology, many oppose scientific process on ethical grounds. The researchers in the field of newly inventions face scrutiny from many advocacy groups because technology is seen as violating one’s fundamental environment principles. The current debate lies on major questions about the relationship between Science and Technology and Purposeful Leisure.What could be its psychological and societal implications to an individual? Since we have the ability to make advancement, we had better think hard about the kind of life we want. Technology has tremendous power to do good if properly used. The issues are complex. The lesson of history is that whatever is possible will be tried somewhere by someone at some time but this is no excuse for sitting back. We need to decide based on principles th at the whole community can support and understand. We individuals have a vital role to play. I would like to give my reaction on the Sample Essay no. entitled Leisure and Modern Age. It stated that the Modern Age has offered humanity various inventions and technology advancement which have made our lives so progressive. Well, I agree with that, as I observe the society, people were allure by the new inventions and creations. Eyes are staring at computer monitors, ears are suited with headphones, and hands are busy pressing buttons and body is moving consistently. The next part is how these things failed to provide humanity with more quality leisure time. Since, we spend our time on improving our gaming skills than making ourselves healthy.We have loss our mind-set that we still need to take concentration on our wellness. Most illness were get due to lack of nutrients, this happened when we engaged our energy in unworthy things. And technology is one of that unworthy things that weak ens our immune system. I can say that it is okay to find Leisure on Technologies, but it is not good to get addicted and forget the real essence of why these inventions were made. Since some of the creations were made to help people become more efficient and not to make people become dependent.Because some people were very dependent to these creations, they occupy their time just to improve on games, failing them to recall about more important things. They forget about wellness which is much needed that having an accomplished work at technologies’influence. â€Å"Use technology, but don’t let Technology use you. † I remember this words said by an American psychology Professor on Youtube. We are now living in a modern age bringing us various ways to make our life much easier than before, less money to spend with and less energy to deal with.Tiring days is not an issue no more, finding time to rest is stress-free. But how good is it to have this kind of lifestyle, where communication is fast as airwaves, where task can be quickly performed in just a short span of time. Does it take the pressure when someone’s in a hurry? What are the effects of Modern Age especially on how we find time to relax? There are several effects of technology in human health, environment, animals, plants and earth. Technology can affect our health in many ways with both short term and long term effects.The extent to which an individual is harmed by technology usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging contents. Short term includes irritation of eyes and sudden stroke of muscles. Long term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease and even damage to brain nerves. Another effect is that both plants and animals are harmed by pollution cause by some creations. All the effects mentioned above pose a warning of danger for all living things. Humans, as the most intelligent species on earth, are encouraged to be more aware on what they’ re doing not just by themselves but also to other creatures.

Developing and applying theories in a pluralistic society – The Person Centred Method

For this assignment I leave be considering Carl Rogers cardinal-on-one totalityd mode and its operation to homosexual women in a pluralist rescript, I bequeath be drawing upon the theoretic frame survey previously employ in my presentation.Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was the baseer of the mortal centred mode his theories ar associated with the Humanistic psychology it is to a fault associated with Maslow(1908-1970) and phenomenological onslaught.Phenomenology is a philosophical assessment of the soul it was authentic by Husserl (1975), the focus is on the subjective perplex. The manner involved requires the headmaster to suspend their impudence and interpretation of the clients world, thereby wholeowing the client to interpret and explore their avouch contracts and thoughts.It is master(prenominal) to consider the context in which psychological theories innovationualised and developed. Humanistic psychology developed in the industrial age and in the 50s and 60s it therefrom places great importance on the individualist as a psyche striving for independence, egotism-importance actualisation and their uttermost potential.Dryden et al (1989) ingest besides inclined an outline of the origins of the military manistic theory, that these were in the flush(p) era of the 50s and 60s in California, terms much(prenominal)(prenominal) as self actualisation, lavatory be just a slogan that is utilise without all(prenominal) real meaning, when contrasted between the prosperous, optimistic inn of California, it washstand stimulate a contrastive meaning for those people that argon in poverty argon unemployed or homeless.The judgment of self actualisation which is considered prerequisite by psychologists much(prenominal) as Rogers throw out be explored in relation to homosexual women and how society conceptualises them.Homosexuality has been steaded by psycho healers and psychiatrists as a mental illness, and was considered as much(prenominal) until 1974 when the Ameri shtup Psychiatric Association free it, in time there was considerable electrical resistance to this from psychformer(a)apists, psychoanalysts, and medical stumper psychiatrists ( Mcleod J, 1998), in-fact psychformer(a)apy was theatrical roled to refine to cure homosexuality.Although the work of Rogers has encouraged progress and has been associated with drive elbow room a authority from the previous medical sticker of mental illness, one the draw backs of Rogerian soulfulness centred therapy out lined by Ivey et al (1997) is that it is a highly verbal technique, which is over-concerned with the denseer meaning of manners rather than tackling problems and finding solutions. indeed it whitethorn not be suited to all clients especially those with mental health problems and so forthRogers therapy kn take in as person centred and non-directive aimed to diverseness the balance of power towards that of the client, and to treat the individual as a client rather than a patient.However this point underside be debated as to whether the balance of power is really shifted and the control is with the recipient, rather than the provider of the therapy. critical review of therapies, such as Rogerian, psychodynamic and cognitive behavioral according to Ivey et al (1997) is that they place responsibility for the problem with the client rather than considering structural, governmental and environmental issues that ar relevant to the clients find.The person centred method in relation to sapphic women births to be applied in a way that is sensitive to them, therefore if the counsel is male he will need to be aware that he does not impose his own assumptions and interpretation onto the client, firstly about his ideas about womens roles in spite of appearance society and as nurturers, wives and m early(a)s, secondly uninspired perceptions about sapphicism.Feminists criticise models of the destiny relatio nship which have their origins in the white center(a) class male ideology, they relate this to the way a patriarchal society oppresses women into subservient roles, Banks (1999) besides questions whether male healers can substantiate a female clients experiences in a male dominated society.Hetro-sexual women can in any case oppress homosexuals through and through controvert assumptions and homophobia that can bakshish to imposing our own set and assumptions about lesbian relationships, McLeod (1998) gives a right example where a female healer tried to actively encourage her lesbian client to date men.The person centred approach places feature emphasis on the drill of the core conditions, genuiness, compressed controlling sham and empathy, and its view of human world nature is official and optimistic in comparison to Freudian psychology. The core conditions out lined by Rogers plays an essential part in construction a therapeutic relationship, between the therapist and the client.From my lord experience when working(a) as education cordial worker relating to a teenage pregnancy, the girl was fifteen eld old and Asian. I was surprised when she utter that she thought she was a lesbian, but working with the young person and applying Rogers core conditions, of genuiness, empathy and unconditional positive move, enabled me to realize that people need to discover their sexuality and who the real person is society can place impel on young people to conform to the norms of a white, straight person society and thereby place conditions of worth on them. peremptory positive regard which is accepting the clients experiences without popular opinion is essential in progressing a therapeutic relationship, however if the counsellor has negligent negative, homophobic assumptions about homosexuality, from the society that he/she lives in then these whitethorn consciously or unconsciously be transferred on to the client. Humanistic psychotherapist Don Clark (1987) has explicit that therapeutic neutrality is impossible to maintain, since we have taken on board societys negative stereotypes of homosexuality, he has stated that it is presumptuous to withdraw that counsellors who have been taught about valuable concepts such as unconditional positive regard are able to apply them with alert-lesbian clients if they are not aware of their own straightaway or homophobia biases (Davies and Neal,1996)A lesbian women may for example find it difficult to amount to terms with her own sexuality, because of negative stereotypes and disgrace associated with it, Lesbian women are raised to view themselves as a half person without a man, they may see marriage as a door to individualized contractth, adult hood, freedom, and motherhood. ( Davies and Neal,1996) the counsellor may therefore need to enable the lesbian charwoman to restore her self wish and her concept of being a woman, the traditional female roles, as mother and wife m ay not be stereotypes that she aspires to.The push of Homophobia on the self concept of a lesbian woman will spend a penny conditions of worth, therefore lesbians may feel they are not worthy individuals if they are not heterosexual, do not have children, have a male partner and take as society expects women to do.Bradshaw (1998) has defined the concept of Toxic bewilder in relation to internalised homophobia within the self-concept. This notion cannot be fully soundless without the use of a more eclecticist approach to counselling because it states that the self concept can be place, fragile and a traitorously self concept can develop, through denial, this may be conscious or unconscious but it will be due to the fear of discovery.Toxic shame can lead to the development of defences which can lead to alcohol, substance abuse, suicide attempts, distancing oneself from others, underachievement or over-achievement etc.Being functional or dysfunctional human being is in particul ar relevant to how lesbian womens individuality and self concept develops, beclimax functional human being requires being able to use ones own organismal valuing process, which maximises the potential to grow and become the true self. The dysfunctional human being lives to meet the values of others to subscribe love and respect. Coming out as a lesbian therefore is fraught with anxiety and even danger of rejection by family, friends and community.The primary question is will they be valued by society if they come out as Lesbian? The organismic need to come out and be accepted as a lesbian should be facilitated by the therapist to enable the client to accept their real individuation however the client should be localise to do this in her own time. Therefore acceptance from the therapist or social worker or other professional is an essential first step.However therapists as well as other professionals such as socialworkers can soft oppress lesbian women, an example from my feat ure out experience when working with the Education offbeat service in a illustration where the child was not attending give lessons regularly, during the home visit the client revealed that her relationship with her husband had broken down and that she had started a lesbian relationship, this immediately led me to make the assumption that the childs non-attendance may be link to this new relationship.On reflection I noticed how easy it was to jump to a conclusion relating to same sex relationships and would I have made the same assumption if the relationship was with a partner of the foeman sex?Drawing from my own experience I notice how easily professionals from circumstances organisations can make assumptions that can lead to discrimination and oppression, when working in a refuge for vulnerable women that had been the victims of domestic violence, a Black woman with four children came to the centre it was assumed automatically by the atom of staff taking down her history that the abusive partner was male. The woman found that she had to explain that she was in a lesbian relationship, and the abusive partner was another woman.This is a good example where social assumptions and stereotypes where women are perceived to be submissive, passive individuals that are the victims of domestic violence rather than the perpetrators of it. It also shows that assumptions are made by professionals regarding relationships that a partner automatically means individual of the opposite sex.The person centred method when applied to lesbians need to take into account the experience of the individual as a woman and also as lesbian her experience needs to be valued and respected, this method if used effectively according to Rogers, can build up the self -worth and self acceptance.However Davies and Neal (1996) state that few British training courses in counselling or psychotherapy cover working with lesbian, laughable and bi-sexual people. They propose a model of gay af firmative therapy this should be incorporated into other theoretical methods such as human-centred and psychodynamic etc.Gay affirmative therapy is not an independent system of psychotherapy. Rather it represents a special present of psychological intimacy which challenges the traditional viewsDavies and Neal (1996)Gay affirmative therapy is an eclectic model that incorporates both theories.2 definitive factors pointed out by Davies and Neal is firstly whether the counsellor is competent to counsel the homosexual individual, and secondly that it is important for the counsellor to examine their own ideas about values, moral and purport demeanors when working with clients who are culturally different. This is the important factor of genuiness or congruence that Rogers has defined, Kus (1990), states that a therapist should be open and honest about ad hominem prejudices that they hold about homosexuality, and refer clients on, however congruence can be much more difficult in pract ice, if the therapist or the client with holds information from each other in the relationship.Empathy is also an important core condition that was noted by Rogers with in the person centred approach, it is a deep perceiveing of the clients personal perspective of their problems, however it can be argued whether a heterosexual person can fully understand what it feels like to be a lesbian, besides can a white person fully understand what it feels like to be black? This question exposes the difficulty of cross-cultural counselling, especially if the counsellor or therapist is unaware of the their own prejudice for e.g. non-verbal behaviour, eubstance language or are stolid about the issues for lesbian women.However it is important for professionals such as therapists not to assume that all lesbians need counselling for coming to terms with their sexuality, counselling may be required for a wide range of other issues as with hetero sexual women. R.J, Kus (1990) states that one of the most frequent criticism concerning aid professionals is that they get fixated upon the homosexual life style and lose sight of the issues the help is being sought for, this means that the therapist assumes that the life style is the problem, despite the client stating other issues that help is sought for.The Humanistic perspective has contributed to social work practice by providing valuable criteria working in anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory way with service users, the most useful ploughshare is the person centred approach, which facilitates building of genuine helping relationship and listening to the service user. It also acknowledges that the client is expert on his/her particular problems.The person centred method has many positive aspects that can be used by social workers and other helping professionals, and aspects of this model can be incorporated with other theories to provide an eclectic model that can be used effectively by them.For example the humanistic p erson centred method is a valuable tool to build warm, respecting and trusting relationship with clients such as lesbian women, it will facilitate judgement their present situation, and how they view them selves within society and explore their organismic needs. Aspects of the psychodynamic approach may be useful in the change the client to explore their unconscious feelings and motives, whilst multicultural perspectives, acknowledge the cultural background and identity of the individual.I think that for anti-discriminatory social work practice that can empower the individual an eclectic model may be the most useful approach in a helping relationship.